ABSTRACT
This study examined the effects of effluent discharges from various point-loads on a purposively selected receiving river, the self-recovery ability of the river and the
treatability of both the discharges and the receiving stream in a heavily industrialized
community.  The work involved field survey of industries producing and discharging effluents in the study area (Ado Odo/ Otta industrial zone of Ogun State, Nigeria); determination
of the effluentsâ physico â“ chemical, biological and microbial characteristics, and the
impact of the discharged effluents on the receiving surface water using standard methods. Primary data were also collected for analysis using structured questionnaires and oral interviews to elicit the contribution of the industries to water pollution.  To advance analytical process various scenarios of improving water quality along the river under study were examined. An array of computer based hydrogeometric and water quality models were investigated. QUAL2K was operated as a one-dimensional steady state and completely mixed system for hydrogeometric and water quality analysis on the Atuwara River. The 10.81 km long stretch from upstream at Owode â“ Ijako  to Iju Water Works was mapped with geographical positioning systems (GPS) and divided  into 7 reaches with further segmentation of 0.3 km each from where grab samples were collected routinely throughout the study period. The research analyzed the effluent discharges from all industries along the river for priority pollutants such as BOD, COD, TDS, TSS, and Heavy metals using standard methods. The effluent samples were obtained and compared with river water samples before and after receiving waste loads in the dry and wet seasons. Model result was interfaced with geographical information systems (GIS) for clear display of model outcome to demarcate polluted zones, limnographic points and wetlands of the Atuwara watershed. The worst scenario of the effluent samples were obtained for laboratory-scale treatability studies by applying electro â“ Fenton alone or with further treatment by Granulated Activated Carbon (GAC) type BBC 945 to properly remove traces of heavy metals.
The result showed that the effluents were acidic in both seasons with range between pH 5.4  –  6.7. The BOD and COD concentration were also very high especially at immediate downstream of points of discharge. The level of dissolved oxygen (DO) attained at points of discharge remain anoxic with the DO gradually increasing at short distances downstream to each discharge point but much higher where tributaries discharge into the river under study. The assimilative capacity of the river is very high because of the contribution from the tributaries. Calculated worst scenario of BOD discharge was about 12 metric tonnes per day. The heavy metals (cadmium, lead and iron) were slightly above the FEPA standard at all sections of the river. All these indicated that the river is impaired and should be declared polluted and not good for human consumption without adequate treatment.
The study showed that the Atuwara River was grossly polluted. Treatment of the worst scenario effluent collected from an industry showed that COD removal of more than 66% was achieved with electro-Fenton treatment at a molar ratio of H2O2/Fe2+ between 150-250, using 0.3M H2O2 and 0.002M Fe2+ and when further treated with the GAC 945 sample, the COD removal was 86%. To achieve river water quality specified by regulatory authorities, it is therefore
recommended that substantial load curtailment from the firms discharging the
effluents be enforced by the government through mandatory provision of in-house
adequate treatment and at regulated flow rate to meet the National standards.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATION – – – – – –   ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  – – – – –   iv
DEDICATION  – – – – – –   vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS  – – – – – – viii
LIST OF TABLES  – – – – – –   xiv
LIST OF FIGURES – – – – – –   xvi
LIST OF PLATES – – – – – – xviii
LIST OF ACRONYMS – – – – – –   xix
ABSTRACT  – – – – – – –   xxii

CHAPTER ONE  – – – – – –   1
1  INTRODUCTION – – – – – –   1
11  Background to the Study  – – – – –   1
12  Statement of the Problem  – – – – –   1
13  Aims of the Research  – – – – –   2
14  Specific Objectives of the Study  – – – –   2
15  Justification for the Research  – – – –   3
16  Scope of the Study  – – – – – –   3
17  Delimitation of the Study  – – – – –   3
18  Operational Definition of Terms  – – – –   4
19  Expected Result and Contribution to Knowledge  – – –   8
191  Expected Results  – – – – – –   8
192  Expected Contributions to Knowledge – – – –   8

CHAPTER TWO  – – – – – –   10
2  LITERATURE REVIEW – – – – –   10
21  Water Quality and Pollution Problems  – – –   10
211  Water Quality  – – – – – – 10
212  Pollution Problems  – – – – – – 11
213  Causes of Water Pollution  – – – – – 11
214  Sources and Effects of Water Pollution – – – – 13
22  Receiving Environment Characteristics  – – – –

  14
221  Assimilative Capacity of the Receiving Water – – – 15
222  Views on Global Water Quality  – – – – 16
23  Water Quality in Nigeria  – – – – –   18
24  Historical Development of Hydrodynamic Systems – – –   20
25  Historical Development of Water Quality Models  – –   21
251  Early Modeling Works  – – – – – 21
26  Water Quality Standards  – – – – –   29
27  Hydrodynamics and Hydraulics  – – – – –   31
271  Hydraulic Routing Techniques  – – – – – 34
272  1-Dimensional Equation of Motion  – – – – 37
273  2-Dimensional Equations of Motion  – – – – 41
274  3-Dimensional Equations of Motion  – – – – 43
28  Numerical Solution Techniques  – – – – –   45
281  Finite Difference Solution Method – – – – 46
2811  Explicit Finite Differences  – – – – – – 47
2812  Implicit Finite Differences  – – – – – – 48
282  Finite Element Solution Method  – – – – 49
29  Conceptual Framework of Water quality model  – – –   51
210  Review of Available, Applicable Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Models
  – – – – – – –   55
2101  Water Quality Analysis Simulation Program  – – – – 55
2102  Hydrodynamic and Water Quality Model Selection  – – – 56
2103  Case Studies Utilizing DYNHYD and WASP Modeling Software  – – 57
2104  QUAL2E (The Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model) – – 57
21041 The Scope and Components of QUAL2E  – – – – 58
211  QUAL2K Input File Generation  – – – –   60
2111  Dissolved Oxygen  – – – – – – 60
2112  Model Framework and Scientific Details  – – – – 62
21121 Model Inputs  – – – – – – 63
21122 Model Outputs  – – – – – – – 64
2113  Transport Processes  – – – – – 64
2114  Conversion Processes  – – – – – – 66

CHAPTER THREE – – – – – –   67
3  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: Materials and Methods  – –   67
31  The Research Design  – – – – –   67
311  Design Brief Formulation  – – – – – 67
312  Survey Approach and Survey Instrument – – – – 69
32  Study Site  – – – – – –   73
321  Survey of Industries – – – – – – 73
322  Determination of pollutant sources, types and quantities  – – – 74
33  Sampling Techniques  – – – – –   74
34  Field Sampling and Analyses – – – –   77
341  Site Characterization Studies – – – – – 78
342  Method of Sample Collection – – – – – 78
35  Laboratory Test Studies and Pilot â“ Scale Studies  – –   79
36  Engineering Model Design and Pilot â“Scale Studies (Modeling, Simulation
and Treatability Studies)  – – – – –   80

CHAPTER FOUR  – – – – – –   82
4  MODEL APPLICATION TO RIVER ATUWARA – – –   82
41  Model Study Area: Atuwara River, Ogun State Nigeria  – –   82
411  River Atuwara Origin and Course  – – – – 83
412  River Atuwara: Geology, Climate and Hydrology  – – – 84
413  Vegetation, Agriculture and Hunting  – – – – 89
414  Human Population  – – – – – – 89
415  Uses of the River Atuwara  – – – – – 92
4151  Irrigation  – – – – – – – 92
4152  Fisheries and Livestocks  – – – – – 92
4153  Recreation around the Watershed  – – – – – 92
416  Industry along River Atuwara  – – – – – 93
4161  Industrial Polluants  – – – – – – 93
42  Data Collection and Processing  – – – –   102
421  Flow Types  – – – – – – – 102
4211  Low Flow Analysis: Flow and Pollution Loads  – – – – 102
4212  Oxygen Reaeration Formulae: Internal Calculation of the Reaeration Ratio – 103
422  Channel and Flow Data  – – – – – 104
4221  Flow Data – – – – – – – 104
4222  Instantaneous Release  – – – – – – 105
4223  Continuous Release – – – – – – 106
4224  Biological Decay – – – – – – 107
423  Hydrodynamics Predictions – – – – – 107
424  Continuous Variable Hydrodynamics  – – – – 108
425  Hydro- geometric Data  – – – – – 108
43  Condition for Simulation with QUAL2K  – – –   111
431  Mass Balance – – – – – – 115
432  QUAL2K Calibration  – – – – – 116
433  Reaction Rate Constants  – – – – – 117
434  Flow and Pollution Loads – – – – – 117
435  How QUAL2K Obtain Solutions Numerically  – – – 117
436  Model Configuration/Model Segmentation  – – – – 121
437  Model Parameters  – – – – – – 121
4371  Initial Condition Based on Observation from Atuwara River Watershed  – 125
4372  Initial Condition Based on Best Professional Judgment  – – – 125
438  Model Loading Rates/Endpoint Identification  – – – 127
439  Reaeration rate constants  – – – – – 129
4310  BOD Loadings, Concentrations and Rates  – – – – 130
43101 BOD Removal Rates  – – – – – 133
43102 Settling  – – – – – – – 133
43103 Bed Effects – – – – – – 134
4311  QUAL2K APPLICATION  – – – – – 136
44  Application of GIS to River Atuwara Watershed/Study Area  – –   139
45  Measurement of Contamination from Industrial Discharge by GIS  –   141
46  SUMMARY OF RESULTS – – – –   142

CHAPTER FIVE – – – – – – –   171
5  EFFLUENT TREATABILITY STUDIES  – – –   171
51  INTRODUCTION  – – – – –   171
52  Analytical methods  – – – – –   173
53  Materials and Methods  – – – – –   174
54  Experimental Results and Discussion  – – –   177
55  Uses of Activated Carbon for Effluents Treatment  – – –   181

CHAPTER SIX  – – – – – –   185
6  DISCUSSIONS OF RESULTS, SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS-185
61  Research Finding and Discussion  – – – –   185
62  Summary of Hydrodynamics Model Results  – – –   188
63  Summary of QUAL2K Model Results – – – –   188
64  Treatability Studies Results  – – – – –   189
65  Research Contribution to knowledge  – – – –   190
66  Future Directions in River Modeling in Nigeria  – – –   192

CHAPTER SEVEN – – – – – –   194
7  RESEARCH CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS – –   194
71  Research Conclusions  – – – – –   194
711  The Model Software  – – – – – – 194
712  Location Description  – – – – – 195
713  Water Quality Standard for all Assessment Units in this Research – – 195
714  Priority Pollutants along the Atuwara Watershed  – – – 198
72  Recommendations  – – – – –   202

REFERENCES – – – – – –   205
APPENDIX A  – – – – – –   220
WATER QUALITY COMPONENTS – – – –   220
APPENDIX B  – – – – – –   223
THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRES – – – –   223
Industrial Assessment Form  – – – – –   225
APPENDIX C  – – – – – –   233
TABLES UTILIZED FOR MODEL SELECTION – – –   233
APPENDIX D  – – – – – –   241

SECTORAL GROUPING OF ADO ODO /OTTA INDUSTRIES  – –   241
Sector A: Food, Beverages & Tobacco – – – –   241
Sector  B : Chemical & Pharmaceuticals  – – – –   242
Section C: Domestic & Industrial Plastics, Rubber & Foam  – –   243
Sector D: Basic Metal, Iron, Steel & Fabricated Metal Products  – –   244
Sector E: Pulp Paper & Paper Products; Printing & Publishing  – –   245
Sector F: Electrical And Electronics  – – – –   245
Sector G: Wood & Wood Products Furniture  – – –   245
Sector H: Non Metallic Mineral Products – – – –   246

APPENDIX E – – – – – –   247
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENT DATA – – – –   247
The General Food and Beverages Industry  – – –   262
Generation of Liquid Wastes in Industries  – – –   264
Generation of Hazardous Wastes  – – – – –   266

LIST OF TABLES
Table 21: Development Periods of Water Quality Models (Chapra, 1997) –   26
Table 22: Abbreviated List of Water Quality Models with Reference  – –   28
Table 23: Stokesâs Settling Velocities (in m/day) at 20°C  – – –   33
Table 31:  Location of the 10 Sector Industries  – – –   70
Table 32:  Outline of a generalized sampling protocol  – – –   76
Table 41: Ranges of discharge coefficients and exponents  – –   116
Table 42 Average values and ranges of exponents in hydro geometric correlations
– – – – – – –   120
Table 43  Water Quality Calibration Rates and Coefficients  – –   126
Table 44 Typical Values for the ratio of 5=day to ultimate BOD  – –   132
Table 45: Typical loading rates for untreated domestic sewage  – – –   132
Table 46    Model reaches Delineation – – – –   137
Table 47: October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data  –   142
Table 48:  October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data
– – – – – – –   143
Table 49: October 14, 2008 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric
Parameters  – – – – – –   144
Table 410: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates 148
Table 411: February 17, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   149
Table 412: February 17, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical
Data  – – – – – – –   150
Table 414: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates
– – – – – – –   155
Table 415: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data –   156
Table 416: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data
– – – – – – –   157
Table 417: March 18, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric
Parameters  – – – – – –   158
Table 418: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates  –   162
Table 419: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Model Water Quality Input Data  –   163
Table 420: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Statistical Summary of Analytical Data 164
Table 421: May 11, 2009 Atuwara Rivers Field Measured Hydrogeometric
Parameters  – – – – – –   165
Table 422:  May 11, 2009 Atuwara River Water Quality Model Loading Rates  –   170
Table 51 Energy Variation of Electro-Fenton Experiments  – –   180
Table 52Characteristics of effluents treatment by Electro-  Fenton
– – – – – – –   180
Table 53 Specification of Quality and Use of Granular Activated Carbon  –   183
Table 54 Result of Effluents Treatment with both Electro  – Fenton and GAC BBC
945 – – – – – – –   184
Table 71: Individual Reach Description:  Summary of River Atuwara Watershed
Impairment addressed in this research  – – – –   201
Table C1    Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix  – – –   233
Table C1    Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd)  – – –   235
Table C1    Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd)  – – –   236
Table C1 Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd)  – –   237
Table C1    Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd)  – – –   238
Table C1    Water Quality Model Comparison Matrix (Contd)  – – –   239
Table E1: Water Quality Analysis of Selected Industries in Ado â“ Odo Otta  –   247
Table E2: Water Quality Analysis of Selected Industries in Ado â“ Odo Otta and Lagos
– – – – – – –   249
Table E3: Water Quality Trends in Selected Receiving Water Bodies from 1980  â“
1997 – – – – – – –   251
Table E4: Industrial Sub-Sectoral Types, Raw Materials, Products & Waste
Characterization  – – – – – –   252
Table E5: Volume of Wastewater Produced by Some Industrial Sector  – –   261
Table E6: Characteristic of Typical Brewery and Distillery Wastewater  – –   262
Table E7: Volume of Wastewater Produced by Some Industrial Sector  – –   265
Table E8: Source and Types of Hazardous Waste in Some Industries  – –   267

 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 21 An urban waterâ”wastewater system  – – – –   22
Fig22: Schematic of water quality model used for a typical River Estuary –   53
Fig23 Schematic description of the water quality model QUAL2E  – –   66
Figure 31 Map of Otta District, Ogun State Nigeria  – – –   72
Figure 41:  General Layout of the Study Area  – – – –   86
Figure 42: River Atuwara Watershed  – – – –   87
Figure 43: River Atuwara Watershed and Built-up Areas  – – –   91
Figure 44: River Atuwara and Industrial Locations – – –   95
Figure 45: River Atuwara Wetland and Sampling Points  – – –   101
Figures 46 Cross â“ Section of the basin to calculate other parameters  – –   113
Fig 47:  Computational Grid Set – Up  – – – –   123
Figure 48 Location Map showing sampling Points and Tributaries  – –   124
Figure 49a Total removal rate versus stream depth for BOD that is 50% in settleable
form   – – – – – –   135
Figure 49b In â“ Stream decomposition rate versus depth ( Bowie et al ,1985)  –   135
Figure 410: October 14, 2008  Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow
Model   Predictions  – – – – –   145
Figure 411: October 14,2008 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model
Predictions – – – – – –   145
Figure 412: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions  –   146
Figure 413: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions   146
Figure 414: October 14 2008 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions   147
Figure 415: October 14, 2008 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions
– – – – – – –   147
Figure 416: February 17 2009, Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow
Model Predictions  – – – – – –   152
Figure 417: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model
Predictions – – – – – –   152
Figure 418: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions  –   153
Figure 419: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions 153
Figure 420: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions
– – – – – – –   154
Figure 421: February 17, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions
– – – – – – –   154
Figure 422: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model
Predictions – – – – – –   159
Figure 423: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions
– – – – – – –   159
Figure 424: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions  –   160
Figure 1425: March 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions    160
Figure 426: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions  –   161
Figure 427: March 18, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions    161
Figure 428: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River Dissolved Oxygen Vs River Flow Model
Predictions – – – – – –   166
Figure 429: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD Vs River Flow Model Predictions
– – – – – – –   166
Figure 430: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD and Model Predictions  –   167
Figure 431: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, DO and Model Predictions  –   167
Figure 432: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River CBOD, Vs SOD Model Predictions  –   168
Figure 433: May 11, 2009 Atuwara River TBODu, Vs SOD Model Predictions  –   169
Figure 51 Electro â“Fenton Experimental Set â“ up  – – –   176
Figure 71: Improved activated carbon Bed  – – – –   199

LIST OF PLATES
PLATE I  River Atuwara and  Iju Villagers  – – – –   94
PLATE II  River Atuwara soon recovers after receiving effluents from a Food
Processing Firm – – – – – –   94
PLATE IIIA truck discharging combined effluents into River Atuwara at Ekusere
– – – – – – –   98
PLATE  IV  Abattoir on River Atuwara upper  boundary at Owode  â“  Ijako along
Lagos Abeokuta Expressway  – – – – –   98
PLATE V  River Atuwara upper boundary at Owode  â“  Ijako along Lagos
Abeokuta Expressway  – – – – –   99
PLATE VI  River Aturwara receiving solid wastes from the environment –   99
PLATE VIISampling from Distilleries effluents along River Atuwara Watershed
– – – – – – –   100
PLATE VIII  Distilleries effluents cascading into River Atuwara  – –   100
PLATE IX Hydrogeometric Measurement on River Atuwara  – –   110
PLATE X Hydrogeometric Measurement at Iju Water Works lower down stream    110
PLATE XI  Laboratory Bench Scale Electro â“Fenton Experimental set – up  –   178
PLATE XII  Running the Laboratory Bench â“ Scale Electro Fenton Experiment    178
PLATE XIII  Measuring water quality parameters from Laboratory Bench-  Scale
Electro â“ Fenton Experiment  – – – –   179

 LIST OF ACRONYMS
BOD      Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CBOD     Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand  
CE-QUAL-ICM   Three-Dimensional Eutrophication Model
CE â“QUAL-W2   Two  â“  Dimensional, Laterally-Averaged Hydrodynamic and
Water Quality Model
COD  Chemical Oxygen Demand  
DO       Dissolved Oxygen  
DYNHYD    Link Node Tidal Hydrodynamic Model
EFDC      Environmental Fluid Dynamics Code  
FEPA       Federal Environmental Protection Agency
GIS      Geographic Information Systems  
GPS      Global Positioning System  
HEM-3D     Three-Dimensional Hydrodynamic-Eutrophication Model  
HM      Heavy Metals
HSPF      Hydrologic Simulation Program â“ FORTRAN  
IPP      Integrated Product Policy
MAN      Manufacturers Association of Nigeria  
MEDLI     Model for Effluent Disposal using Land Irrigation
MEPP      Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning
NBOD      Nitrogenous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
NH3-N       Ammonia-nitrogen  
NMS      National Minimum Standards
NPES       National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
OGEPA    Ogun State Environmental Protection Agency
OPO4      Ortho-Phosphorus or Inorganic Phosphorus  
QUAL2E    Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model  
QUAL2K    Enhanced Stream Water Quality Model (Improved)
RIVMOD-H     River Hydrodynamics Model and  
SBR      Sequencing Batch Reactors
SOD      Sediment Oxygen Demand
TBOD     Total Biochemical Oxygen Demand
TDS      Total Dissolved Solids
TMDL      Total Maximum Daily Load
TOC       Total Organic Carbon   
TPWQM    Tidal Prism Water Quality Model  
TSS      Total Suspended Solids
TVA      Tennessee Valley Authority  
UNESCO  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
USEPA       United States Environmental Protection Agency
USGS      United State Geological Survey
WASP  Water Quality Analysis Simulation Programme Water Quality
Model Developed by USEPA
WES      World Environmental Systems  
WHO       World Health Organization  
WTP      Water Treatment Plant  
WWTP     Wastewater Treatment Plant